A Chronicle Of The Heritage, Origin, Culture, And Worldview Of Ndị Igbo

Ndị Igbo people are a special race among the indigenous ethnicities of Nigeria, and West Africa at large. The Igbo have a saying “Ife e ji abu igbo erika.” This loosely means that “Ndị Ìgbò are great people, and it takes a whole lot to be an Igbo.” This attests to the dynamism of the egalitarian Igbo. In this article, Nwanyanwu Amadioha presents an encompassing view and discussion about the Igbo, their heritage, culture, language, political structure, and many more.

ETHNONYMS: Ala Igbo, Ani Igbo, Igbo, Ndi Igbo, Ndị Ìgbò

Orientation

Identification

Igbo is the language spoken in Ala Igbo or Ani Igbo (Igboland) by the people who are collectively referred to as “Ndị Ìgbò”; their community is known as “Olu no Igbo” (“those in the lowlands and uplands”).

Before European colonialism, the Igbo-speaking peoples, who shared similarities in culture, lived in localized communities and were not unified under a single cultural identity or political framework, although unifying processes were present via expansion, ritual subordination, intermarriage, trade, cultural exchange, migration, war, and conquest. Villages and village groups were generally identified by distinct names of their ancestral founders or by specific names such as Umuleri, Nri, Ogidi, Nnobi, Orlu, Ngwa, Ezza, and Ohaffia.

There are several theories concerning the etymology of the word “Igbo” (wrongly spelled “Ibo” by British colonialists). Eighteenth-century texts had the word as “Heebo” or “Eboe,” which was thought to be a corruption of “Hebrew.” “Igbo” is commonly presumed to mean “the people.”

The root -bo is judged to be of Sudanic origin; some scholars think that the word is derived from the verb gboo and therefore has connotations of “to protect,” “to shelter,” or “to prevent”—hence the notion of a protected people or a community of peace. According to other theorists, it may also be traced to the Igala, among whom onigbo is the word for “slave,” oni meaning “people.”

Igbo-speaking peoples can be divided into five geographically based subcultures: northern Igbo, southern Igbo, western Igbo, eastern Igbo, and northeastern Igbo. Each of these five can be further divided into subgroups based on specific locations and names. The northern or Onitsha Igbo are divided into the Nri-Awka of Onitsha and Awka; the Enugu of Nsukka, Udì, Awgu, and Okigwe; and those of the Onitsha town.

The southern or Owerri Igbo are divided into the Isu-Ama of Okigwe, Orlu, and Owerri; the Oratta-Ikwerri of Owerri and Ahoada; the Ohuhu-Ngwa of Aba and Bende; and the Isu-Item of Bende and Okigwe. The western Igbo (Ndi Anioma, as they like to call themselves) are divided into the northern Ika of Ogwashi Uku and Agbor; the southern Ika or Kwale of Kwale; and the Riverrain of Ogwashi Uku, Onitsha, Owerri, and Ahoada. The eastern or Cross River Igbo are divided into the Ada (or Edda) of Afikpo, the Abam-Ohaffia of Bende and Okigwe, and the Aro of Aro. The northeastern Igbo include the Ogu Uku of Abakaliki and Afikpo.

Location

Today Igbo-speaking individuals live all over Nigeria and in diverse countries of the world. As a people, however, the Igbo are located on both sides of the River Niger and occupy most of southeastern Nigeria. The area, measuring over 41,000 square kilometers, includes the old provinces of Onitsha, Owerri, East Rivers, Southeast Benin, West Ogoja, and Northeast Warri.

In contemporary Nigerian history, the Igbo have claimed all these areas as the protectorate of the “Niger Districts.” Thus began the process of wider unification and incorporation into wider political and administrative units. Presently, they constitute the entire Enugu State, Anambra State, Abia State, Imo State, and the Ahoada area of Rivers State; Igbo-speaking people west of the Niger are inhabitants of the Asaba, Ika, and Agbo areas of Delta State.

Demography Of Ndị Ìgbò

In 1963 Ndị Ìgbò numbered about 8.5 million and by 1993 had grown to more than 15 million (some even claim 30 million, although there has been no widely accepted census since 1963). They have one of the highest population densities in West Africa, ranging from 120 to more than 400 persons per square kilometer.

Igbo subcultures are distributed in six ecological zones: the northern Igbo in the Scarplands, the northeastern Igbo in the Lower Niger, the eastern Igbo in the Midwest Lowlands, the western Igbo in the Niger Delta, the southeastern Igbo in the Palm Belt, and the southern Igbo in the Cross River Basin.

Linguistic Affiliation Of Ndị Ìgbò

Igbo is classified in the Kwa Subgroup of the Niger-Congo Language Family, which is spoken in West Africa. It is thought that between five and six thousand years ago, Igbo began to diverge from its linguistic related neighbors such as the Igala, Idoma, Edo, and Yoruba languages. There are many dialects, two of which have been widely recognized and are used in standard texts: Owerri Igbo and Onitsha Igbo. Of the two, Owerri Igbo appears to be the more extensively spoken.

The vast majority of Ndị Ìgbò inhabit the southeastern part of Nigeria with a few of them just west of the River Niger. 

A small number of Igbo-speaking people are also found along the southern coastline of Sierra Leone. 

Ndị Ìgbò Are Politically Egalitarian And Democratic

Speaking at the 1979 Ahajioku Lecture Series, professor Echeruo of the English Department at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, suggested that “Igbos are perhaps the only major ethnic group in West Africa which lacks the monolithic cohesiveness characteristic of a people with a long history of communal interaction.” 

(Please follow me gradually as I clarify this) 

The ancestral origin of Igbos remains largely speculative. One school of thought identifies Igbos from the general area of Onitsha, including Ika Igbos, with Benin ancestry. Some well-known families in Onitsha, however, reject this notion, tracing their ancestry instead to the Igala people of the Middle Belt of Nigeria. Yet another traditional folklore traces Igbos to the Ogoja and Ekoi people just northeast of Igboland. 

G.T. Basden, in his book The Igbos of Southern Nigeria, traces the origin of Igbos to the Jews, observing the great similarities in their respective cultural practices. Humphrey Eni of Ujari, in his book The Ujari People of Awka District (1965), argues that the Igbos of Arochukwu might have been associated with, but not descended from Jews expelled from Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella.

(Biko don’t go anywhere because we have not started yet)

Whatever one’s persuasion in the continuing debate over the origin of Igbos, there is little disagreement that Igbos are generally ambitious, industrious, energetic, and unacquainted with idleness. “We’re all habituated to labor from our earliest years,” Equiano wrote, “competitive, progressive, and proud.” Inherent in Igbo tradition is the belief that a man is truly a man only if he can provide for and defend his family. Children, family, and community are the essence of Igbo traditional values. 

The Igbo are profoundly religious people who believe in a benevolent creator, usually known as Chukwu, who created the visible universe (uwa). Encompassing this force for good is agbara, meaning spirit or supernatural being. 

In some situations, people are referred to as agbara in describing an almost impossible feat performed by them. In a common phrase, the Igbo people will say Bekee wu agbara. This means the white man is a spirit. This is usually in amazement at the scientific inventions of the white man (in a few cases).

Apart from the natural level of the universe, they also believe that it exists on another level, that of the spiritual forces, the alusi. The alusi are minor deities, and are forces for blessing or destruction, depending on circumstances. They punish social offenses and those who unwittingly infringe their privileges. The role of the diviner is to interpret the wishes of the alusi, and the role of the priest is to placate them with sacrifices. Either a priest is chosen through hereditary lineage or he is chosen by a particular god for his service, usually after passing through a number of mystical experiences. Each person also has a personalized providence, which comes from Chukwu, and returns to him at the time of death, a chi. This chi may be good or bad. 

(You can know more about this in one of my Lectures there is a Religion you are yet to know)

There is a strong Igbo belief that the spirits of one’s ancestors keep a constant watch over you. The living show appreciation for the dead and pray to them for future wellbeing. It is against tribal law to speak badly of a spirit. Those ancestors who lived well died in socially approved ways and were given correct burial rites live in one of the worlds of the dead, which mirror the worlds of the living. They are periodically reincarnated among the living and are given the name ndichie (the returners). Those who died bad deaths and lack correct burial rites cannot return to the world of the living or enter that of the dead. They wander homeless, expressing their grief by causing harm to the living. (Read more on ancestors on my wall) 

The funeral ceremonies and burials of the Igbo people are extremely complex, the most elaborate of all being the funeral of a chief. However, there are several kinds of deaths that are considered shameful, and in these circumstances, no burial is provided at all. Women who die in labour, children who die before they have no teeth, those who commit suicide, and those who die in the sacred month.

For these people, their funeral ceremony consists of being thrown into a bush. Their religious beliefs also led some parts of the Igbo to kill those that might be considered shameful to the tribe. Single births were regarded as typically human, multiple births as typical of the animal world. So, twins were regarded as less than humans and put to death (as were animals produced at single births). Children who were born with teeth (or whose upper teeth came first), babies born feet first, boys with only one testicle, and lepers, were all killed and their bodies were thrown away in secrecy. (Please note that these practices were not synonymous to all sections of the ancient Igbo).

Religion was regarded with great seriousness, and this can be seen in their attitudes to sacrifices, which were not of the token kind. Religious taboos, especially those surrounding priests and titled men, involved a great deal of asceticism.

The Igbo expected in their prayers and sacrifices, blessings such as long, healthy, and prosperous lives, and especially children, who were considered the greatest blessing of all. The desire to offer the most precious sacrifice of all led to human sacrifice. Slaves were often sacrificed at funerals in order to provide a retinue for the dead man in life to come. There was no shrine to Chukwu, nor were sacrifices made directly to him, but he was conceived as the ultimate receiver of all sacrifices made to the minor deities. (Read more about deities on my Lectures Of Igbo tradition and culture). 

Here Are Some Common Deities Ndị Ìgbò Have

* Imo miri – the spirit of the river. The Igbo believe that a big river has a spiritual aspect; it is forbidden to fish in such deified rivers. 

* Mbatuku – the spirit of wealth. 

* Agwo – a spirit envious of others’ wealth, always in need of servitors. 

* Aha njuku or Ifejioku – the yam spirit.

* Ikoro – the drum spirit. 

* Ekwu – the hearth spirit, which is women’s domestic spirit. 

These minor deities claimed an enormous part of the daily lives of the people. The belief was that these gods could be manipulated in order to protect them and serve their interests. If the gods performed these duties, they were rewarded with the continuing faith of the tribe. Different regions of Igboland have varying versions of these minor deities.

(This section will be expanded to cover other deities that are known to other parts of Igbo land)

Further Discussing The Origin And Diversity Of Ndị Ìgbò

Many theories have been put forward about the origin of the Igbo people. Some claim that the Igbo migrated from the East and are either one of the lost tribes of Israel or Egypt. Another claim is that they migrated from Western Africa.  But available evidence such as Language diversity; Botanical (Forests Conservation); Population density; Archaeological, suggests that the Igbo and their forbears have lived in much of their present homes from the dawn of human history.

The traditional homeland of the Igbo people lies in the south-eastern region of Nigeria. They are situated between the great River Niger and Cross Rivers State, with the Ibibio, Ijo, Igala, Idoma, Edo as their neighbors. The ancient settlement at Igbo-Ukwu in eastern Nigeria was an outpost for West Africa’s long-distance trade routes, one of which was the Trans-Saharan trade routes. The main items traded were gold, salt, cowries shells (the major unit of currency), weapons, expensive cloth, pepper, ivory, kola nuts, leather goods. 

The arrival of Europeans on the coast of West Africa undermined the Saharan trade but did not finally finish it until well into the 19th century. This also made the south-eastern region flourish, primarily trading in palm products, timber, elephant tusk, and spices. 

The Igbos are a self-helping race who strongly believe in making themselves what they wish to be, hence the Igbo saying “Onye kwe Chi ya ekwe”. They are a people rich in culture and tradition. Although generally having very similar cultures, they also show a local variation in cultures and customs.

Based on these variations the Igbo land can be divided into five main subgroups:

1. The Northern Igbo:– Igbo-Ukwu, Onitsha, Enugwu, Nri-Awka 

2. The Western Igbo:– Ogwashi-Ukwu, Asaba, Agbor, 

3. The Southern Igbo:– Umuahia, Ngwa, Owerrinta, 

4. The Eastern Igbo:– Afikpo, Arochukwu-Ohiafia, Bende 

5. The North-Eastern Igbo:– Ogu-Ukwu, Abakaliki 

After several military conquests, Igbo land then came under British colonial rule. This was a style of government not very popular amongst the Igbos, hence the British were faced with a lot of protest and resistance, but Igbo land still became a British Colony. 

In 1900 the area that was once administered by the British Niger Company now became the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria. Control of this area then got passed from the British Foreign Office to the Colonial Office. By 1900 – 1914, Northern and Southern Nigeria were amalgamated. Then afterward the Eastern Region was formed and subsequently was divided into several other states.

Early Igbo Currency

Historically a variety of objects have been used across Africa to facilitate trade and measure wealth. Although cowrie shells, aggrey beads, ivory, and cloth have served historically as currency, metals have also been used from the earliest times. 

Some pre-coinage currencies used for goods and services include:

1. Cowry shells 

Cowries money is one example of odd and curious early primitive money. Cowries shells of many varieties and species were the first universal currency. Igbos exchanged the polished, white and yellow, olive-sized shells imported from the Maldives Islands in the Indian Ocean. The earliest evidence of their use in Africa was found in the pre-dynastic tombs of Egypt (c. 4000-3200 BC).

These shells were ancient money used not just in Igboland, or in Africa, but throughout the world, predating the use of coins or in some instances used in the same economy as metal coins. In Igboland, they were a sign of wealth and importance and served for small everyday transactions and, gathered together in the millions, for bridewealth (a groom’s gift to the family of the bride) and other major purchases and gifts.

The shells were believed to possess the power of fertility, thus ensuring their acceptance throughout the wide territories of Africa. Inflation and problems of transportation eventually rendered the cowries impractical as thousands of tons of cowries were shipped to West Africa.

2. Bracelet 

Bracelets, that were cast or hammered from copper had little circulation and were never used in connection with routine transactions. Instead, they served as reservoirs of wealth in a form that was easy to store and transport. This storage function is best illustrated in the very heavy bracelets of the South-Eastern Nigeria region. To create some of these bracelets, the artists poured molten metal directly into a cast in the ground called a puddle mold.

As the metal cooled, it was wrapped into a circular shape and often even fitted directly to the wearer’s body. Representing stored family wealth; these ornaments were usually large and heavy and were worn by people of high status throughout Igboland. Aside from their intrinsic value, they were also valued for their artistry.

3. Manilla 

Manillas entered the local economies as a form of currency and were a highly profitable item of trade. They circulated in West Africa from the end of the 15th century to 1948. They were originally made of copper or brass and later composed of a mixture of other metals. 

Copper and brass manillas were heavy open bracelets shaped like house shoes, with bulbous ends.

The quality of their ringing sound and the amount of “flash,” or excess metal extruded at the joints of the mold, helped determine their value. The small manillas with flared ends were manufactured in Birmingham, England, for export to Africa. Larger examples, called king, queen, or prince manillas, were status symbols and more of a store of value than currency. The queen manilla shown here was worth about 75 small ones. During the mid-1500, Portuguese seamen were reported to have paid about 50 manillas for an ounce of gold.

Early Igbo Writing

Nsibidi 

Before the colonization of Nigeria by the Europeans, the Igbos and their Efik, Ibibio, and Annang neighbors developed a system of writing known as Nsibidi. The Nsibidi style of writing is independent of any external influence, has been in existence in South-Eastern Nigeria since 1700, and does not rely on Arabic or Latin script. It is based entirely on signs and symbols.

The exact origin is not certain but some investigation indicates that the writings originated among the Ibibios and, through trade and other social & economic communication, became adopted and better developed by their Igbo neighbors.

One of the first European to discover the existence of Nsibidi was Mr. T. D. Maxwell, in 1904 and a year later he displayed 24 Nsibidi signs at a native goods exhibition which was later published. 

Nsibidi scripts can be seen on tombstones, secret society buildings, costumes, ritual fans, headdresses, textiles, and in gestures, body, and ground painting. They are also used for religious rituals and cultural celebrations, recording court cases, messages and secret societies records, proverbs and short stories, and for writing private love letters. 

One of the reasons Nsibidi became obsolete may have been due to the fact that it was surrounded by a great deal of secrecy. It is known that the use of writings was popular among secret societies like Mmanwu, Ekpe, and Okonko. It appeared that writing Nsibidi required formal education, which emerged to be available for those seeking to enter a secret society.

Nsibidi scripts have been discovered in use in some Afro-religious rituals in countries like Haiti and Cuba.

The End

This Piece Was Written By Nwanyanwu Amadioha (The Voice Of The Ancestors)

---

---

Editor’s Note: We are dedicated to providing factual reports of history, news, opinions, and discussions on the people of the South-East of Nigeria. We are open to questions, contributions, and corrections on the topics we chose to share. Please feel free to drop your comments below, or send us an email at [email protected]. We promise to attend to your inquiry, reply to you and act on your request within a week. Please also endeavor to share our publications, to help us reach more of our people.

---